Book 7
Knowing this, I judged that you had only to remain in peace for all men to deem you fortunate. But since there is some divine motivation, and it seems that the gods mark Greece [22,39] (nation), EuropeHellas for destruction, I myself change and correct my judgment. Now declare the gods' message to the Persians, and bid them obey your first command for all due preparation. Do this, so that nothing on your part be lacking to the fulfillment of the gods' commission.”
After this was said, they were incited by the vision, and when daylight came Xerxes imparted all this to the Persians. Artabanus now openly encouraged that course which he alone had before openly discouraged.
Xerxes was now intent on the expedition and then saw a third vision in his sleep, which the Magi interpreted to refer to the whole earth and to signify that all men should be his slaves. This was the vision: Xerxes thought that he was crowned with an olive bough, of which the shoots spread over the whole earth, and then the crown vanished from off his head where it was set.
The Magi interpreted it in this way, and immediately every single man of the Persians who had been assembled rode away to his own province and there used all zeal to fulfill the kings command, each desiring to receive the promised gifts. Thus it was that Xerxes mustered his army, searching out every part of the continent.
For full four years484-481. after the conquest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt he was equipping his force and preparing all that was needed for it; before the fifth year was completed, he set forth on his march with the might of a great multitude.
This was by far the greatest of all expeditions that we know of. The one that Darius led against the Scythians is nothing compared to it; neither is the Scythian expedition when they burst into MediaCp. Hdt. 1.103; Hdt. 4.1. in pursuit of the Cimmerians and subdued and ruled almost all the upper lands of Asia (continent)Asia (it was for this that Darius afterwards attempted to punish them). According to the reports, the expedition led by the sons of Atreus against +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) Troy is also nothing by comparison; neither is the one of the Mysians and Teucrians which before the Trojan war crossed the +Karadeniz Bogazi (strait), Istanbul, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Bosporus into Europe (continent)Europe,It seems fairly clear that there was some sort of movement from the one continent to the other; Herodotus makes it from Asia (continent)Asia to Europe (continent)Europe; but on the evidence it is just as likely to have been the other way. See How and Wells, ad loc. subdued all the Thracians, and came down to the +Ionian Sea [19,39] (sea), Europe Ionian sea, marching southward as far as the river Peneus.
All these expeditions and whatever others have happened in addition could not together be compared with this single one. For what nation did Xerxes not lead from Asia (continent)Asia against Greece [22,39] (nation), EuropeHellas? What water did not fail when being drunk up, except only the greatest rivers?
Some people supplied him with ships, some were enrolled in his infantry, some were assigned the provision of horsemen, others of horse-bearing transports to follow the army, and others again of warships for the bridges, or of food and ships.
Since those who had earlier attempted to sail around +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos had suffered shipwreck, for about three years preparations had been underway there. Triremes were anchored off Elaeus in the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, AsiaChersonese; with these for their headquarters, all sorts of men in the army were compelled by whippings to dig a canal, coming by turns to the work; the inhabitants about +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos also dug.
Bubares son of Megabazus and Artachaees son of Artaeus, both Persians, were the overseers of the workmen. +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos is a great and famous mountain, running out into the sea and inhabited by men. At the mountain's landward end it is in the form of a peninsula, and there is an isthmus about twelve stadia wide; here is a place of level ground or little hills, from the sea by Acanthus to the sea opposite +Torone [23.8167,40.05] (Perseus) Torone.
On this isthmus which is at the end of +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos, there stands a Greek town, Sane; there are others situated seaward of Sane and landward of +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos, and the Persian now intended to make them into island and not mainland towns; they are +Dion [22.5,40.175] (Perseus) Dion, Olophyxus, Acrothoum, Thyssus, and Cleonae.
These are the towns situated on +Mount Athos [24.316,40.166] (inhabited place), Pangaion Oros, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Athos. The foreigners dug as follows,In spite of the incredulity of antiquity the canal was no doubt actually made and used. Traces of it are said to exist. See, e.g. How and Wells, ad loc. dividing up the ground by nation: they made a straight line near the town of Sane; when the channel had been dug to some depth, some men stood at the bottom of it and dug, others took the dirt as it was dug out and delivered it to yet others that stood higher on stages, and they again to others as they received it, until they came to those that were highest; these carried it out and threw it away.
For all except the Phoenicians, the steep sides of the canal caved in, doubling their labor; since they made the span the same breadth at its mouth and at the bottom, this was bound to happen.
But the Phoenicians showed the same skill in this as in all else they do; taking in hand the portion that fell to them, they dug by making the topmost span of the canal as wide again as the canal was to be, and narrowed it as they worked lower, until at the bottom their work was of the same span as that of the others.
There is a meadow there, where they made a place for buying and marketing; much ground grain frequently came to them from Asia (continent)Asia.
As far as I can judge by conjecture, Xerxes gave the command for this digging out of pride, wishing to display his power and leave a memorial; with no trouble they could have drawn their ships across the isthmus, yet he ordered them to dig a canal from sea to sea, wide enough to float two triremes rowed abreast. The same men who were assigned the digging were also assigned to join the banks of the river Strymon by a bridge.
Thus Xerxes did this. He assigned the Phoenicians and Egyptians to make ropes of papyrus and white flax for the bridges, λευκόλινον is apparently not really flax but “Esparto grass,” imported from Spain [-4.000,40.000] (nation), EuropeSpain by the Phoenicians. and to store provisions for his army, so that neither the army nor the beasts of burden would starve on the march to Greece [22,39] (nation), EuropeHellas.
After making inquiry, he ordered them to store it in the most fitting places, carrying it to the various places from all parts of Asia (continent)Asia in cargo ships and transports. They brought most of it to the White Headland (as it is called) in Thrace (region (general)), EuropeThrace; some were dispatched to Tyrodiza in the Perinthian country or to Doriscus, others to Eion on the Strymon or to Macedonia (region (general)), EuropeMacedonia.
While these worked at their appointed task, all the land force had been mustered and was marching with Xerxes to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis, setting forth from Critalla in +Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cappadocia, which was the place appointed for gathering all the army that was to march with Xerxes himself by land.
Now which of his governors received the promised gifts from the king for bringing the best-equipped army, I cannot say; I do not even know if the matter was ever determined.
When they had crossed the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys and entered Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia, they marched through that country to Celaenae,This implies a considerable divergence to the south from the “Royal road,” for which see Hdt. 5.52. Xerxes here turns south to avoid the difficult route through the Hermes valley, probably; cp. How and Wells, ad loc. where rises the source of the river +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander and of another river no smaller, which is called Cataractes; it rises right in the market-place of Celaenae and issues into the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander. The skin of Marsyas the Silenus also hangs there; the Phrygian story tells that it was flayed off him and hung up by Apollo.The legend of the contest between Marsyas the flute-player and Apollo the lyre-player seems to indicate a change in the national music, the importance of which was more easily understood by a Greek than it is by us.
In this city Pythius son of Atys, a Lydian, sat awaiting them; he entertained Xerxes himself and all the king's army with the greatest hospitality, and declared himself willing to provide money for the war.
When Pythius offered the money, Xerxes asked the Persians present who this Pythius was and how much wealth he possessed in making the offer. They said, “O king, this is the one who gave your father Darius the gift of a golden plane-tree and vine; he is now the richest man we know of after you.”
Xerxes marvelled at this last saying and next himself asked Pythius how much wealth he had. “O king,” said Pythius, “I will not conceal the quantity of my property from you, nor pretend that I do not know; I know and will tell you the exact truth.
As soon as I learned that you were coming down to the Greek sea, I wanted to give you money for the war, so I inquired into the matter, and my reckoning showed me that I had two thousand talents of silver, and four million Daric staters of gold,The Daric stater was equivalent to about 22s. of our money. lacking seven thousand.
All this I freely give to you; for myself, I have a sufficient livelihood from my slaves and my farms.”
Thus he spoke. Xerxes was pleased with what he said and replied: “My Lydian friend, since I came out of Iran [53,32] (nation), AsiaPersia I have so far met with no man who was willing to give hospitality to my army, nor who came into my presence unsummoned and offered to furnish money for the war, besides you.
But you have entertained my army nobly and offer me great sums. In return for this I give you these privileges: I make you my friend, and out of my own wealth I give you the seven thousand staters which will complete your total of four million, so that your four million not lack the seven thousand and the even number be reached by my completing it.
Remain in possession of what you now possess, and be mindful to be always such as you are; neither for the present nor in time will you regret what you now do.”
Xerxes said this and made good his words, then journeyed ever onward. Passing by the Phrygian town called Anaua, and the lake from which salt is obtained, he came to +Colossae [29.25,37.783] (deserted settlement), Denizli Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Colossae, a great city in Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia; there the river Lycus plunges into a cleft in the earth and disappears,The Lycus here flows in a narrow gorge, but there is no indication of its ever having flowed underground, except for a few yards. until it reappears about five stadia away; this river issues into the +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander.
From +Colossae [29.25,37.783] (deserted settlement), Denizli Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Colossae the army held its course for the borders of Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia and Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia, and came to the city of Cydrara, where there stands a pillar set up by Croesus which marks the boundary with an inscription.
Passing from Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia into Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia, he came to the place where the roads part; the road on the left leads to +Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria, the one on the right to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis; on the latter the traveller must cross the river +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander and pass by the city of Callatebus, where craftsmen make honey out of wheat and tamarisks. Xerxes went by this road and found a plane-tree, which he adorned with gold because of its beauty, and he assigned one of his immortals to guard it. On the next day he reached the city of the Lydians.
After he arrived in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis, he first sent heralds to Greece [22,39] (nation), EuropeHellas to demand earth and water and to command the preparation of meals for the king. He sent demands for earth everywhere except to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus)Athens and Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon. The reason for his sending for earth and water the second time was this: he fully believed that whoever had not previously given it to Darius' messengers would now be compelled to give by fear; so he sent out of desire to know this for certain.
After this he prepared to march to Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, AsiaAbydos; meanwhile his men were bridging the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont from Asia (continent)Asia to Europe (continent)Europe. On the Gelibolu Yarimadasi (peninsula), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, AsiaChersonese, which is on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont, between the city of Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus)Sestus and Madytos [26.3667,40.2] (Perseus)Madytus there is a broad headlandBetween the modern bays of Zemenik ( +Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus) Sestos) and Kilia: some four miles broad. running out into the sea opposite Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, AsiaAbydos. It was here that not long afterwards the Athenians, when Xanthippus son of Ariphron was their general, took Artayctes, a Persian and the governor of Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus)Sestus, and crucified him alive; he had been in the habit of bringing women right into the temple of Protesilaus at Elaeus and doing impious deeds there.
The men who had been given this assignment made bridges starting from Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, AsiaAbydos across to that headland; the Phoenicians one of flaxen cables, and the Egyptians a papyrus one. From Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos to the opposite shore it is a distance of seven stadia.The modern width at the narrowest part is nearly half as much again; perhaps this can be explained by the washing away of the coasts, because of a current which strikes them near +Sestos [26.4,40.2833] (Perseus) Sestos and rebounds on Abydus [26.416,40.2] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Abydos. But no sooner had the strait been bridged than a great storm swept down, breaking and scattering everything.
When Xerxes heard of this, he was very angry and commanded that the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont be whipped with three hundred lashes, and a pair of fetters be thrown into the sea. I have even heard that he sent branders with them to brand the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont.
He commanded them while they whipped to utter words outlandish and presumptuous, “Bitter water, our master thus punishes you, because you did him wrong though he had done you none. Xerxes the king will pass over you, whether you want it or not; in accordance with justice no one offers you sacrifice, for you are a turbid and briny river.”
He commanded that the sea receive these punishments and that the overseers of the bridge over the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont be beheaded.
So this was done by those who were appointed to the thankless honor, and new engineers set about making the bridges. They made the bridges as follows: in order to lighten the strain of the cables, they placed fifty-oared ships and triremes alongside each other, three hundred and sixty to bear the bridge nearest the Black Sea [38,42] (sea)Euxine sea, and three hundred and fourteen to bear the other; all lay obliquely to the line of the Black Sea [38,42] (sea)Pontus and parallel with the current of the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont.Or it may mean, as Stein thinks, that the ships of the upper or N.E. bridge were ἐπικαρσίαι, and those of the lower or S.W. one were κατὰ ῥόον. For a discussion of the various difficulties and interpretations of the whole passage, see How and Wells' notes, ad loc.
After putting the ships together they let down very great anchors, both from the end of the ships on the Black Sea [38,42] (sea)Pontus side to hold fast against the winds blowing from within that sea, and from the other end, towards the west and the Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea)Aegean, to hold against the west and south winds. They left a narrow opening to sail through in the line of fifty-oared ships and triremes, that so whoever wanted to could sail by small craft to the Black Sea [38,42] (sea)Pontus or out of it.